THE ECUMENICAL COUNCILS

INTRODUCTION.
A council of the church is a conference called by the leaders of the church to give guidance to the church. The first council of the church took place in Jerusalem (A.D. 50) for the purpose to dealing with Judaizing legalism. Its events are recorded in Acts 15. The results of this first council became normative for the entire early church. But this council must be distinguished from later councils of the church in that it had apostolic leadership. Later councils of the church are either ecumenical or local; an ecumenical council represents the entire church and a local council has regional or local representation. For example, twelve regional councils met to discuss the Arian heresy between the ecumenical councils of Nicaea in A.D. 325 and Constaninope in A.D. 382.

Historically, councils have been called by emperors, bishops, and popes. The first seven councils were convoked in the East by the emperors of the Roman Empire and were typical of Eastern caesaropapism (state over church). In the West the popes typically convened councils, except for a time during the Great Schism (1378-1417) when the plurality of bishops both convened councils and deposed popes (conciliarism). The Council of Constance in 1415 proclaimed the superiority of general councils over the pope. But their supremacy was short lived. By 1500 the pontiff had overcome the concilar movement and the pope was again convening councils. They asserted the absolute authority of the pope, as Christ's representative on earth, as having the authority to call a council of the entire church and declare or reject a council as ecumenical. It was precisely against this absolute authority of the pope to convene councils that Martin Luther directed one of his pamphlets, Address to the Christian Nobility. Luther viewed such papal prerogatives as one of the ":three walls" that had to be broken down.

Both Roman Catholics and the Eastern Orthodox churches regard the first councils until their separation as ecumenical. After the split between the Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) churches, each branch began holding their own authoritative councils. Protestant churches have usually regarded as valid many of declarations of these early councils, since they concerned themselves with controversies about the Trinity and the deity, person, and nature of Christ. There are eight of these councils that are considered ecumenical; they are
EC1: First Council of Nicaea, 325,
EC2: First Council of Constantinople, 381,
EC3: Council of Ephesus, 431,
EC4: The Council of Chalcedon, 451,
EC5: The Second Council of Constantiople, 553,
EC6: The Third Council of Constantinople, 680,
EC7: The Second Council of Nicaea, 787,
EC8: The Fourth Council of Constantinople, 869-870, or
EC8: The Fourth Council of Constantinople, 879.

THE FIRST ECUMENICAL COUNCIL

First Council of Nicaea, A.D. 325

Place, Date and Participants.
1. Place: Nicaea in Bithynia (modern Iznik, in Turkey).
2. Date: Beginning May 20, A.D. 325.
3. Participants: about 300 bishops.
  1. Eusebius of Nicomedia: Leader of the Arian Party.
  2. Eusebius of Caesarea: Leader of the Moderate Party.
  3. Athanasius: Leader of the Orthodox Party.
Purpose, Problem and Decisions.
1. Purpose: To settle the Arian controversy.
2. Problem: The relationship of Jesus to God.
3. Decisions: A creed was adopted with the following emphases:
  1. The "sonship of Christ" is preferred to the logos concept.
  2. The word homoousia was inserted which said that Christ is of the same being with the Father.
  3. To the phrase "begotten" was added "not made".
  4. The Son is "one substance" with Father.
  5. To the words "became flesh" was added "and was made man".
  6. Anti-Arian anthemas were appended to the creed.
Results.
1. The Church was split.
2. The Arian Controversy continued.

The Creed of Nicaea (19 June A.D. 325)

We believe in one God, the Father, Ruler of All,
maker of all things visible and invisible.

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God,
begotten from the Father, only begotten,
that is, from the substance of the Father,
God from God, light from light,
true God from true God,
begotten not made,
of one substance (homoousios) with the Father
through whom all things were made
things in heaven and things on earth.
Who for us men and for our salvation
came down and became incarnate;
he became man, suffered and rose again
on the third day, ascended to the heavens
and will come to judge the quick and the dead.

And in the Holy Spirit.

But as for those who say, There was when He was not, and, Before being born He was not, and that, He came into existence out of nothing, or who assert that the Son of God is from a different hypostasis or substance, or is created, or is subject to alteration or change these the Catholic Church anathematizes.

THE SECOND ECUMENICAL COUNCIL

First Council of Constantinople, A.D. 381

Place, Date and Participants.
1. Place: Constantinople.
2. Date: A.D. 381.
3. Participants: 150 Orthodox bishops, 36 heretical bishops.
  1. Melitius, Bishop of Antioch was the President of the Council.
  2. Apollinarius of Laodicea (A.D. c.310-c.390), an Alexandrian, who held that:
    1. The Logos dwells in Jesus and takes the place of his human soul.
    2. The transfer of properties is total.
    3. Jesus had one nature.
    4. The Logos suffered and died on the cross, not in itself but by the transfer of its properties to the flesh.
  3. Diodore of Tarsus (A.D. c.394), an Antiochene, who held that:
    1. The Logos dwells in Jesus but does not take the place of his human soul.
    2. There is no transfer of properties.
    3. Jesus has two natures, the "two Sons": the Son of God and the son of David.
    4. The Logos did not suffer or die on the cross, but only the human soul and flesh of Jesus did.
Purpose, Problem and Decisions.
1. Purpose: To settle the Apollinarian controversy.
2. Problem: Apollinarianism was a heresy which held that Christ has a human body, but no human soul. His human soul was replaced by the divine Logos. He lacked complete manhood.
3. Decisions:
  1. Apollinarianism was condemned.
  2. The Creed of Nicaea was upheld.
  3. The appointing of Nectarius as Bishop of Constantinople.
  4. Granting Constantinople honorary precedence over all churches except Rome.
Results.
1. Settled the question of the humanity of Christ.
2. Constantinople's bishop became more powerful.

THE THIRD ECUMENICAL COUNCIL

Council of Ephesus, A.D. 431

Place, Date and Participants.
1. Place: Ephesus in Asia Minor.
2. Date: 7 June A.D. 431.
3. Participants: a number of Eastern and Syrian bishops with Roman legates.
  1. Cyril of Alexandria
  2. Memron of Ephesus, bishop of Antioch
  3. John of Antioch
Purpose, Problem and Decisions.
1. Purpose: to settle the Nestorian controversy.
2. Problem: In A.D. 428 the emperor Theodosius II appointed the Antiochene professor Nestorius to the patriachate of Constantinople. Nestorius objected to the use of the term "Theotokos", God-bearer, to refer to Mary as implying that baby in Mary womb only had one nature; he proposed the use of the term "Christotokos", Christ-bearer, to better emphasize the unity of the two natures of Jesus. Nestorius published these views in his Easter letter of A.D. 429. Cyril objected that it was essential to maintain that God Himself had entered the womb of Mary; therefore she was "Theotokos" without qualification. Both men appealed to Rome. In A.D. 430 at a council held in Rome, Nestorius was condemned and deposed. He appealed and this council was held.
3. Decisions:
  1. On June 22, A.D. 431, before the Syrian bishops and Roman legates arrived, Cyril of Alexandria and Memron of Ephesus deposed Nestorius, condemning his teachings.
  2. Four days later, the Antiochene delegation arrived. They deposed Cyril and Memron, reinstating Nestorius.
  3. Finally, on 10 July, the Roman delegation arrived and overturned the verdict a second time.
  4. Nestorius was again deposed and banished to upper Egypt. Cyril was now able to celebrate a complete victory.
  5. Eight canons were passed on various doctrinal matters. On 22 July it decreed that the Creed of Nicaea should never be changed, but should remain forever as the standard of the Church's faith.
Results.
1. Having disposed of Nestorius, Cyril attempted to restore peace with the emperor, whose sympathies were Antiochene, by dispatching a letter to Antioch on 23 April A.D. 433. This letter included the Formulary of Reunion, which had been drawn up as early as August A.D. 431. This document granted Cyril's arguments, but avoided any reference to the "one nature" and treads warily on the subject of the transfer of properties. Many of his followers regarded it as a sell-out to the Nestorians.
2. The Nestorian church was not suppressed. Today, they are called the Assyrian Christians.

THE FOURTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL

The Council of Chalcedon, A.D. 451

Place, Date and Participants.
1. Place: Chalcedon.
2. Date: October, A.D. 451.
3. Participants: 600 bishops, most of them came from the East.
Purpose, Problem and Decisions.
1. Purpose: to settle the Eutychian Controversy.
2. Problem: One aspect of the Christological theology. Eutychus held that:
  1. The manhood of Christ was not consubstantial with ours.
  2. Christ had two natures before, but one after the other.
3. Decisions:
  1. The decisions of the Council of Ephesus (A.D. 449) were rejected.
  2. Eutychus was condemned.
  3. The "Definition of Chalcedon" was drawn up; it affirmed that:
    1. Definitions of Nicaea and Constantinople reaffirmed.
    2. Nestorian and Eutychian errors should be repudiated.
  4. Simple propositions on Christology were pronounced, based on Leo's Tome.
Results.
1. A formal Christology was formed.
2. Decisions were accepted by Eastern and Western Churches.
3. It anticipated the monophysite and monothelite heresies.

The Creed of the Council of Chalcedon
(decrees of the 5th and 6th sessions on 22 and 25 October A.D. 451, respectively)

We believe in one God, the Father, ruler of all,
maker of heaven and earth,
of all things visible and invisible.

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the onlybegotten Son of God,
begotten from the Father before all ages,
light from light,
true God from true God,
begotten not made,
of one substance (homoousios) with the Father,
by whom all things were made.

Who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven
and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary,
and became man,
and was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate,
and suffered and was buried,
and rose again on the third day according to the Scriptures,
and ascended into heaven,
and sitteth on the right hand of the Father,
and will come again with glory to judge the quick and the dead,
Whose kingdom shall have no end.

And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and giver of life,
Who proceeds from the Father,
Who with the Father and Son together is worshipped and glorified,
Who spake through the prophets in one holy catholic and apostolic Church.

We acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins.
We look for the resurrection of the dead,
and the life of the world to come. Amen.

After A.D. 451 this creed, slightly adapted for personal and liturgical use, was accepted as authoritative by East and West alike. It is the only credal statement to be recognized by all branches of the Christian Church. At first it was recited only at baptisms, but gradually it began to be said (not sung) during the Communion Service as well. This practice began among the heretical Monophysites in A.D. 476, as an attempt on their part to be more orthodox than the orthodox. The Creed was introduced into the liturgy at Constantinople in A.D. 511 and after A.D. 589 it was used in Spain, though only as a preparation before the Communion Service began. Charlemagne eventually put it in after the Gospel, sometime around the year A.D. 798. This custom had reached him from England via Alcuin of York, and had originated in Ireland. It seems that the Irish monks had got the Creed from Spain and adopted it with their characteristic originally. Eventually, about A.D. 1014, even Rome admitted it to the liturgy, where it has remained ever since. For some reason the English Reformers dropped the word "holy" before "catholic and apostolic Church", and this curious form is preserved in the English Book of Common Prayer. The 1979 American Book of Common Prayer of the Episcopal Church restored the word.

The term "Nicene Creed" is used ambiguously of the creed used in the eucharistic worship of the Church which is not only longer but different from the creed (N) that was promulgated in A.D. 325 by the Council of Nicaea to defend the orthodox faith against the Arian heresy and to assert the consubstantially of the Son with the Father. The former is known as the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (C), and reflects the popular, although mistaken, view that at the second ecumenical council at Constantinople in A.D. 381 another creed was put forward that enlarged the original, shorter Nicene formulation. A number of considerations show that this hybrid designation is mistaken.

The first appearance of this creed was at the Council of Chalcedon in A.D. 451 where "the faith of the 150 fathers" was read out. There is an absolute silence regarding a Constantinopolitan creed from A.D. 381 to A.D. 451. During these 70 years, that was a period of intense controversy, the creed in this form (C) never appeared once!
A comparison of C with N shows that the key formulas of the Nicene faith, such as the Son's participation in the "substance of the Father", are missing in C. Such omissions make it difficult to accept that C is a modified version of N.
The Creed of Jerusalem which Epiphaius incorporates in his tract Ancoratus in A.D. c.374 is nearly identical to C. Scholarly study has shown that C is not derived from N, despite many resemblances, and it is probably that C originated as a baptismal creed and was used in the episcopal consecration of Nectarius (A.D. 381).

The Nicene Creed,
from The Book of Common Prayer of The Episcopal Church (1979)

We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty,
maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen.

We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God,
eternally begotten of the Father,
God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God,
begotten, not made, of one Being (homoousios) with the Father,
Through him all things were made.
For us men and for our salvation he came down from heaven:
by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary,
and was made man.

For our sakes he was crucified under Pontius Pilate;
and suffered death and was buried.
On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures;
he ascended into heaven, and is seated at the right hand of the Father.
He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead,
and his kingdom will have no end.

We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life,
who proceeds from the Father and the Son.
With the Father and Son he is worshipped and glorified.
He spake through the Prophets.
We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church.
We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins.
We look for the resurrection of the dead,
and the life of the world to come. Amen.

THE FIFTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL

The Second Council of Constantiople, A.D. 553

Place, Date and Participants.
1. Place: Constantinople.
2. Date: 5 May A.D. 553.
3. Participants: 168 bishops. All but eleven bishops came from the East.
4. Council convoked by and presided over by the following patriarchs:
  1. Eutychius of Constantinople,
  2. Appollinaris of Alexandria,
  3. Domininus of Antioch,
  4. Three bishops representing Eustachius of Jerusalem.
Purpose, Problem and Decisions.
1. Purpose: to settle the Three Chapters Controversy.
  The three chapters or "subjects" were
  1. the writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia;
  2. the writings of Theodoret of Cyrrhus against Cyril of Alexandria and in defense of Nestorius;
  3. the letter of Ibas of Edessa to the Persian, Bishop Mari of Hardascir.
2. Problem: The person and works of Theodore of Mopsuestia, the writings of Theodoret against Cyril of Alexandria and the letter of Ibas of Edesea to Maris were condemned by Emperor Justinian in an edict of A.D. 543-544 because of their Nestorian tendencies that were the direct opposite of Monophysitism. His purpose was to reconcile the powerful Monophysite group and retain their allegiance to church and crown. Although this edict did in fact undermine the authority and teaching of the Council of Chacedon (which had declared Theodoret and Ibas to be orthodox), the Eastern patriarchs accepted it without opposition. Pope Vigilius reject it at first, but after a visit to the emperor in Constantinople he endorsed it and made this public in his Judicatum of April A.D. 548, addressed to the patriarch of Constantinople. In the West, however, there was much opposition to the edict, and it found a leader in Bishop Facundus of Hermiane.
3. Decisions:
  1. Three Chapters were anathematized. Twelve anathemas were directed against Theodore of Mopsuestia, one against Theodoret of Cyprus, and one against Ibas.
  2. The name of Origen appears in the list of heretics and Origenism was condemned.
  3. The council also decided to add to Mary, the mother of Jesus, another title in addition to the already existent Theotokos (Mother of God) Aeiparthenos (Ever-Virgin), thus fixing in Church dogma the perpetual virginity of Mary and considering the brothers of Jesus mentioned in Mark 3:31-32 as half brothers, cousins or near relatives.
Results.
1. Antiochian theology was condemned.
2. Alexandrian monophysite doctrine could be reconciled with the definition of Chalcedon.
3. The Chalcedonian dyophysitism afterwards reacted and led to the Sixth Ecumenical Council.

THE SIXTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL

The Third Council of Constantinople, A.D. 680

Place, Date and Participants.
1. Place: Constantinople in the Imperial Place.
2. Date: 7 Nov A.D. 680 to 16 Sept A.D. 681.
3. Participants: 44 bishops and six monks, only one priest and four monks came from the West. The Council was convoked at the request of the Emperor Constantine IV.
Purpose, Problem and Decisions.
1. Purpose: To settle the Monothelite Controversy in Eastern Church.
2. Problem: Did the "two-natured" Christ have two wills or one? To allow one will would be to sanction Monothelitism and Monothelistism is the ethical complement of Monophysitism. In order to clear up the issue the emperor Heraclius instructed Sergius (A.D. d.638), who was consecrated patriarch of Constantinople in A.D. 610, to find a formula of mediation, which would reconciled the Monophysites to the rest of the church. Sergius thereupon advanced the thesis that the Word-made-flesh did all things through the action of a single divine-human energy, "one mode of activity" [energeia]. But this formula was opposed by Sophronius, later to become patriarch of Jerusalem, and this compelled Sergius to restate his position. He then set aside the idea of "energy" and affirmed the existence of one will in the divine-human Christ. In a letter to Sergius Pope Honorius used the term "one will" [mia thelesis] in Christ. Honorius' term was taken up in the Echtesis drawn by Sergius and issued by the emperor in A.D. 638. This Ecthesis forbids the mention of one or two energies and admits only one will in Christ. It was accepted by two synods at Constantinople in A.D. 638 and 639. Thus the Eastern Church accepted the Ecthesis, but Honorius' successors condemned Monothelitism. In order to gain religious peace, Emperor Constans II replaced Echthesis by another document, called Typos. But to the upholders of the Chalcedon doctrine, two natures implied two centers of volition. A heated controversy over the issue followed.
3. Decisions:
  A few leaders in Egypt favored the interpretation that Chirst with two natures was a single person and therefore acted with one will, but most of the Eastern Christians rejected this compromise. This council wanted to bring religious unity between Rome and Constantinople. Thus it rejected Monothelitism and restated the Chalcedonian definition, adding the interpretation that Christ had two wills as well as two natures.
  The council made the following decisions:
  1. The leaders of Monothelitism were anathematized.
  2. The dead pope Pope Honorius was also anathematized because he had sanctioned Monothelitism.
  3. A dogmatic decree of the Council was issued that affirmed that there is
    1. Two Natures,
    2. Two Wills, and
    3. Two operations in Christ.
Results.
Because of these decisions and the fact that Islam had taken over much of the Middle East, the Nestorian and Monophysite wings of the church became permanently separated from the Orthodox Church.

THE SEVENTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL

The Second Council of Nicaea, A.D. 787

Place, Date and Participants.
1. Place: Nicaea in Bithynia.
2. Date: 24 Sept A.D. 787.
3. Participants: 350 from Byzantine Episcopate and two from Roman clergy. The Council was convoked by the Empress Irene at the instigation of Patriarch Tarsius of Constantinople.
Purpose, Problem and Decisions.
1. Purpose: To settle the Iconoclastic Controversy.
2. Problem: The Iconoclastic Controversy:
  1. Reveration of icons arose out of persecutions.
  2. In A.D. 726 Emperor Leo III issued the Iconoclastic Edict, declaring all images idols and ordering their destruction.
  3. Pope Gregory II denounced it and held two synods at Rome condemning Leo's supporters. The imperial cities of Italy rebelled.
  4. In A.D. 730 Leo deposed the patriarch of Constantinople, seized part of the papal lands, and placed the dioceses of Southern Italy and Sicily under Constantinople. Incessant wars against the Arabs prevented him enforcing his decrees in the West.
  5. In A.D. 751 Synod of Hieria convoked by Emperor Constantine V, declared that icon worshippers either divided Christ's unity or confounded His two natures.
3. Decisions:
  1. Undoing the decision of the Synod of Hieria.
  2. Approval of the adherence to the doctrine of the veneration of images absolute adoration is for God alone.
  3. The Iconoclasts were anathematized.
Results.
1. Although it was anathematized, the Iconoclasm remained strong.
2. They led to the "Second Iconoclastic Controversy" in A.D. 814.
3. The unity of this council was artificial and only widens the gap between the Eastern and Western Churches.
4. The breach between East and West was only temporarily healed; it broke out again in A.D. 815. This breach, since it left the papacy without protection from the Lombards, was one of the causes of the founding of the Frankish Empire; although Charlemagne took the side of the Iconoclasts, he repudiated Nicaea II, and asked the Pope to excommunicate the Emperor; a request which Hadrian I refused.

THE EIGHTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL

The Fourth Council of Constantinople, A.D. 869-870

Place, Date and Participants.
1. Place: Constantinople.
2. Date: A.D. 869.
3. Participants:
4. This council was convened by Emperor Basil.
Purpose, Problem and Decisions.
1. Purpose: to restore Ignatius as patriarch.
2. Problem:
  Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople had decided to rebuke the immorality of Emperor Caesar Bardas. Ignatius was arrested and the learned layman Photius was promptly nonimated in his place (A.D. 858). Ignatius was exiled, then voluntary resigned. But the supporters of Ignatius, who considered Photius to be illgitimate, were able to convince Pope Nicholas I that he should intervene. Nicholas convoked a synod at Rome in A.D. 863 which at once voted to excommunicate Photius and to reinstate Ignatius. Photius in turn held a counter synod in A.D. 867 at Constantinople and deposed the Roman pope, accusing him of heresy for admitting the filoque clause to the creed, fasting on Saturdays, using milk, butter, and cheese in Lent, demanding priestly celibacy, and confining confirmation to the bishops. Thus Pope Nicholas failed in his attempt to exercise his authority over the Eastern Church. Photius' greatest support came from Emperor Michael III. But Emperor Michael was murdered in A.D. 867, and his successor, Basil, decided to restore Ignatius as patriarch. Basil convened the A.D. 869 council which voted against Photius and in favor of Ignatius.
3. Decisions:
  Another action of the council was to condemn the Monothelites and the Iconoclasts as had been done in past councils.
Results.
The Latin West recognizes this council as The Eighth Ecumenical Council. The Eastern Church usually recognizes only seven ecumenical councils, but sometimes they do recognize an eighth ecumenical council as that which took place in A.D. 879 under the leadership of Patriarch Photius of Constantinople.

THE EIGHTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL

The Fourth Council of Constantinople, A.D. 879

Place, Date and Participants.
1. Place: Constantinople.
2. Date: A.D. 879.
3. Participants:
4. This council was convened by the Patriarch Photius.
Purpose, Problem and Decisions.
1. Purpose: to annul the council of A.D. 869.
2. Problem:
  Shortly after the death of Ignatius in A.D. 877 Photius was reappointed by Basil to the patriarchal see. Then Photius convened his own Council of Constatinople in A.D. 879.
3. Decisions:
  This council annulled the council of A.D. 869, branding it as fraudulent, and readopted the Nicene Creed, omitting the Filoque clause, "and from the Son". The council specifically spoke against the Filioque, which phrase was added to the Nicene Creed by the Western church to show the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father and from the Son. The council ended by praising the virtues of Photius.
Results.
1. The ill feeling between East and West was augmented, which was to lead, in A.D. 1054, to the complete separation of the two churches.
2. The legates of Pope John VIII in the synod of A.D. 879-880 acknowledged Photius and reversed the earlier condemnations.