THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION

1. INTRODUCTION.
   The problem of evolution is a subdivision of the problem of change and the problem of the one and the many, which has been dealt with previously. The word "evolution" is from the Latin e ("out") and volvere ("to roll"), and the concept has been defined in many ways in the history of philosophy. In general the concept of evolution has been taken to mean development, growth, progress, variation, transformation. But since the middle of nineteenth century the meaning of the word "evolution" has been determined by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.

2. HISTORY.
   1. ANCIENT THEORIES.
      1. Anaximander.
      2. Heraclitus.
      3. Empedocles.
      4. Democritus.
      5. Epicureans.
      6. Plato.
      7. Aristotle.
      8. Stoicism.
      9. Plotinus and Neoplatonism.
      10. Augustine.
      11. Medieval Scholasticism.

   2. MODERN THEORIES.
      As modern science began with a revolt in astronomy against Aristotelian- Ptolemaic view of the universe by Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo
      and in physics against Aristotelian physics by Galileo and Isaac Newton,
      in the nineteenth century modern science continued this revolt against Aristotle in biology and geology.
      1. Geology.
      2. Uniformitarism.
      3. Lyell.
      4. Lamarck.
      5. Darwin.
      6. Reactions to Darwin.
      7. Spencer.
      8. Haeckel.
      9. Morgan.
      10. Alexander.
      11. Bergson.

3. EVALUATION.
   1. Variation and Selection.
   2. Genetic Mutations.
      1. Mutations are Random, not Directed.
      2. Mutations are Very, Very Rare.
      3. Good Mutations are Very, Very Rare.
   3. Similaries and Differences.
   4. Uniformitarianism.
      1. Igneous Rocks and Volcanism.
      2. Earth Movement and Orogeny.
      3. Continental Ice Sheets.
      4. Sedimentation.
   5. Geologic Column.
   6. Uniformitarianism and the Laws of Thermodynamics.
   7. Radioactive Clock.
   8. Age of the Earth - Helium Dating.
   9. Continental Drift.