SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION

By: Ray Shelton

SCIENCE

The Nature of Science.

Definition of Science. Since there are many sciences and no one all-inclusive Science, it would be more correct to speak of "the sciences" rather than "science." The singular form of the word if used refers either to one of the many sciences or else it is to be taken as a collective noun to refer to those characteristics common to all the various sciences. A science may be defined as the investigation of some aspect (or part) of reality by a method, called the scientific method, in order to arrive at a body of general and systematic knowledge. Sometimes the term "science" is used to refer to the results of this human activity, the body of knowledge. Here the term will be used to refer to the human intellectual activity that arrives at that body of knowledge.
Analysis of Definition. An analysis of this definition of a science discloses five characteristics of the sciences:
1. A science is a human intellectual activity - an investigation, not a fixed body of knowledge. Since it is an activity, it is dynamic, not static. It leads to a body of knowledge, however.
2. A science is concerned with some aspect (or part) of reality. Reality is all that is - as contrasted to that which is fictitious, imaginary, or illusionary. Each science is concerned with some part or aspect of reality (see chart).
3. A science is methodical; that is, as an investigation of some aspect of reality it proceeds according to a method, called the scientific method. There are at least three steps to the scientific method:
  1. Determination of the problem,
  2. Formulation of a tentative solution - a hypothesis,
  3. Verification of the tentative solution.
  There are two kinds of problems encountered in the sciences:
  descriptive problems and explanatory problems.
  Descriptive problems have the form: "What...?" or "How...?".
  Explanatory problems have the form: "Why...?".
  These two kinds of problems give rise to two phases of the scientific method:
  the descriptive phase and the explanatory phase.
  There are three steps in the descriptive phase:
  1. The collection and analysis of the facts from which a descriptive problem arises,
  2. The formulation of a descriptive hypothesis, and
  3. Verification of the descriptive hypothesis.
    A verified descriptive hypothesis is called a law.
    A law describes.
  Thus the descriptive phase culminates in a law.
  There are also three steps in the explanatory phase:
  1. The determination of a problem whose solution is an explanation of facts and and laws,
  2. The formulation of an explanatory hypothesis, and
  3. The verification of the explanatory hypothesis.
    A verified explanatory hypothesis is called a theory.
    A theory explains.
  Thus the explanatory phase culminates in a theory.
4. A science has a goal. The goal of a science is to arrive at a body of general and systematic knowledge. Knowledge is warranted (justified) belief. Not all knowledge is scientific. Scientific knowledge is general and systematic. Such knowledge is general in the sense that it is made up of propositions or statements that apply to each and every member of the class or kind of phenomena which is the subject of the propositions. Scientific knowledge is systematic in the sense that it is made up of propositions which may be organized into a deductive system. A deductive system is a number of propositions so organized that from a minimum number of propositions (called axioms or postulates) the rest of the propositions (called theorems) may be logically deduced or proved. Knowledge organized in this way is systematic knowledge. It is more than just organized; it is systematic.
5. A science is purposeful. The purpose of a science is twofold:
  1. To describe that aspect (or part) of reality which is the subject matter of investigation.
  2. To explain that aspect (or part) of reality which is being investigated by the science.
The Classification of the Sciences. The sciences seem to fall into five classes: the physical, biological, social, theological, and philosophical sciences. Each of these classes of sciences is concerned with a different aspect or part of reality. The physical sciences, for example, are concerned with that part of reality which is called the physical world (or physical realtiy). As another example, the theological sciences are concerned with that part of reality that is called God or ultimate realty. Each of the individual sciences in turn is concerned with a more restricted aspect or part of realty. For example, the physical science of chemistry is concerned with that aspect of the physical world called matter.
Relation between the Sciences. Concerning the relation between the sciences, the following things should be noted:
1. The boundary lines between the various science are not as clear cut as it is sometimes supposed. For this reason in recent years a number of boundary-line sciences have developed; for example, there is biochemistry between biology and chemistry.
2. Some of the sciences are more general that others. (These are shown on the chart as horizontal rectangles, the most general being farthest down the chart.) For example, the physical sciences of physics and chemistry are more general than the physical sciences of astronomy and geology. The subject matter of a more general science cuts across the subject matter of several of the more particular sciences.
3. In some of the sciences values have a more important place in the subject matter treated by that science. (These are arranged on the chart in order of increasing importance of values from left to right.) For example, in sociology values have a more important place than in physics where they are nearly non-existent.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES

Increasing Place of Values ->
Physical World Plant and Animal World Man and His Social Relations God and His Relation to World and Man

Physical Sciences Biological Sciences Social Sciences Theological Sciences

Astronomy | Geology Botany | Zoology Psychology | Sociology Theology

Chemistry (matter) Biology

Physics (energy)

Natural Philosophy Moral Philosophy Philosophical Theology

ONTOLOGY (science of being)

AXIOLOGY (science of values)

EPISTEMOLOGY (science of knowledge)

Increasing Place of Values ->
Physical World	Plant and Animal World	Man and His Social Relations	God and His Relation to World and Man
Physical Sciences	Biological Sciences	Social Sciences	Theological Sciences
Astronomy \| Geology	Botany \| Zoology	Psychology \| Sociology	Theology
Chemistry (matter)	Biology
Physics (energy)
Natural Philosophy	Moral Philosophy	Philosophical Theology
ONTOLOGY (science of being)
AXIOLOGY (science of values)
EPISTEMOLOGY (science of knowledge)

PHILOSOPHY

The Nature of Philosophy.
1. Origin of the term "philosophy". It comes from to Greek words, "philos", love, and "sophia", wisdom. The Greek philosopher Pythagoras (c.572-497 B.C.) is said to have called himself a lover of wisdom, a philosopher. In ancient Greece there was a class of traveling teachers called the Sophists, who because of their wisdom claimed they were able to make people wise. Socrates (c.470-399 B.C.) refused to call himself wise, sophist, that is, having wisdom, but only a lover of wisdom, a philosopher. Philosophy is not wisdom, but only the love of wisdom, implying thereby the pursuit of wisdom rather than its attainment. The meaning of the word wisdom is different today from what it meant in the time of Pythagoras and Socrates. In modern times the word wisdom has taken on a very special meaning; it implies an insight which links knowledge to life and action. It denotes essentially a manner of life based on knowledge and a sure grasp of truth. But in early times (Aristotle and Aquinas) it denoted first of all a kind of knowledge that gives understanding and insight into the meaning of the whole of reality. This speculative or theoretical wisdom was distinguished from and contrasted with "prudence" which was the name given to practical wisdom. In modern times the word wisdom has been restricted entirely to this practical wisdom. However, in early times the word wisdom was taken to denote both theoretical and practical wisdom. And philosophy was a search for this wisdom.
2. Definition of the term "philosophy". Philosophy may be defined as that human intellectual activity which aims at the acquisition of a body of general and systematic knowledge concerning those aspects of reality characteristic of it as a whole in order to understand the whole of reality.
3. Analysis of Definition. An analysis of this definition will disclose at least three characteristics of philosophy:
  1. Philosophy is a human intellectual activity. Of the many activities of man there is that activity which may be called philosophy. It is distinguished from other human activities in that it belongs to that group of activities which may be called intellectual. Thus philosophy is an activity of man's mind and not an intellectual construction. Such an intellectual construction in the form of an explanatory hypothesis results from the intellectual activity of philosophy. Thus the following two terms should be carefully distinguished from each other:
    1. Philosophy - the collective noun denoting the intellectual activity with the characteristics to be described below.
    2. A philosophy - the singular noun denoting the intellectual construction of an explanatory hypothesis resulting from the intellectual activity called philosophy.
  2. Philosophy as a human intellectual activity aims at acquiring a body of general and systematic knowledge. This is the goal of philosophy. The subject matter of this body of general and systematic knowledge is those aspects which are characteristic of reality of it as a whole. There are at least three aspects which are characteristic of reality as a whole: being, value, and knowledge. These three aspects give rise to the three main problems of philosophy: the problem of being, of value, and of knowledge.
  3. The purpose for acquiring this body of general and systematic knowledge is to gain an understanding of the whole of reality. Understanding is that ability to see beneath the superficial and seemingly obvious into the subtle interrelationships between seemingly isolated things and events and thus to view them in a wider perspective. Such understanding is the purpose of philosophy. This understanding is concerned with the whole of reality. Thus the whole of reality is the subject matter of philosophy. As such philosophy may be said to be comprehensive. But it is comprehensive in a certain special way. For the whole of reality is the subject matter philosophy because its particular subject matter is those aspects of reality characteristic of it as a whole. Since these aspects are characteristic of it as a whole, the whole of reality may be said to be the subject matter of philosophy. It is in this sense that philosophy may be said to be comprehensive.
4. Conclusion. The body of general and systematic knowledge concerning those aspects of reality characteristic of it as a whole which gives understanding of the whole of reality may be called wisdom in its theoretical aspect. The ability to bring this theoretical wisdom to bear upon the problems and tasks of life is called practical wisdom. Thus the definition of philosophy given above is in accord with the root meaning of the word philosophy as the search of wisdom. Accordingly, philosophy as an intellectual activity is the search for wisdom, and philosophy as an intellectual construction (a philosophy) is the wisdom sought.
PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE
The Relation between Philosophy and the Sciences.
1. The similarities between philosophy and the sciences.
  There are at least three similarities between philosophy and the sciences. These should be understood in the light of the differences given in B below.
  1. Philosophy and the sciences are both human intellectual activities.
  2. Philosophy and the sciences both have same goal. They both seek a body of general and systematic knowledge.
  3. Philosophy and the sciences both are concerned with reality.
2. The differences between philosophy and the sciences.
  1. Even though philosophy and the sciences are both intellectual activities, philosophy is not a science. But as will be seen below philosophy as an intellectual activity is carried on in several sciences, among which the most important are ontology, axiology and epistemology. The reasons that philosophy is not a science are to be found in the two following differences.
  2. Even though philosophy and the sciences both have same goal, they do not have the same purpose. The purpose of philosophy is understanding and purpose of the sciences is knowledge. The sciences seek knowledge for the sake of knowledge. Philosophy seeks knowledge for the sake of understanding.
  3. Even though philosophy and the sciences are both concerned with reality, they are primarily concerned with different aspects of reality. Each of the sciences, physical, biological, social and theological seeks a body of general and systematic knowledge concerning some part or aspect of reality. The social sciences, for example, seek a body of knowledge concerning that part of reality called man and his social relations. Philosophy, in contrast to the sciences, is concerned with the whole of reality. Is philosophical knowledge then just the sum of the knowledge acquired by the physical, biological and other sciences? No, because philosophical knowledge is concerned with the whole of reality only in regard to those aspects characteristic of it as a whole. The knowledge concerning these aspects, however, leads to an understanding of the whole of reality. Thus philosophy is concerned with the whole of reality. To deal with the three most important of these aspects philosophy proper is divided into three sciences:
    ontology (the science of being),
    axiology (the science of values) and
    epistemology (the science of knowledge). (See chart).
    These three sciences are called the primary philosophical sciences. In addition to these three philosophical sciences there are a number of other philosophical sciences which lie in the border area between the primary philosophical sciences and the non- philosophical sciences. These secondary philosophical sciences, which include natural philosophy (cosmology and philosophical biology), moral philosophy, philosophy of religion (philosophical theology), relate the primary philosophical sciences to the non- philosophical sciences. (See chart). The knowledge gained by both primary and secondary philosophical sciences leads to an understanding of the whole of reality which is the purpose of philosophy.
3. The positive relation between philosophy and the sciences.
  The positive relation between philosophy and the sciences is twofold and may be expressed in the following ways: philosophy is scientific and the sciences have a philosophical foundation.
  1. Philosophy is scientific.
    This can be shown by two considerations:
    1. Philosophy employs the scientific method. For an outline of the scientific method see section I.B.3.
      Two things should be noted concerning the philosophical use of the scientific method:
      - The philosophical use of the scientific method is mostly confined to the explanatory phase. Philosophy draws upon the non-philosophical sciences mainly for the results of the descriptive phase.
      - Because of the difficulty of verification, philosophy tends to culminate in a number of explanatory hypotheses (usually called philosophies) rather than theories.
    2. Philosophy is composed of sciences which are called philosohical sciences. Through these sciences philosophy carries on its intellectual activity of the search for wisdom.
  2. The sciences have a philosophic foundation. There are many basic questions in each of the non-philosophical sciences which are philosophical in nature and cannot be answered by any particular sciences as such. Such problems are the limits of the area of investigation, the method of investigation, the relation of its results to the results of the other sciences, etc. Even the philosophical sciences of ontology, axiology and epistemology are interdependent in this way, for there are problems in each which only the others can be properly deal with. For this reason philosophy may be said to be fundamental, and the sciences may be said to have philosophic foundations.
  3. Philosophy has implications for the sciences. As a result of its investigations through the philosophical science, philosophy arrives at certain results concerning those aspects of reality characteristic of it as a whole that have implications for the individual sciences. Even the philosophical sciences of ontology, axiology and epistemology have implications for each other; they need each others results.